Richard Strauß, PD Dr. med.,1 Santiago Ewig, Prof. Dr. med.,2 Klaus Richter, Dr. med.,3 Thomas König, Dr. rer. nat.,3 Günther Heller, PD Dr. med.,3 and Torsten T. Bauer, Prof. Dr. med.4,* Show
Richard Strauß1Department of Medicine 1 – Gastroenterology, Pneumology and Endocrinology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen Find articles by Richard Strauß Santiago Ewig2Centre for Thoracic Diseases in the Ruhr Area, EVK Herne and Augusta-Kranken-Anstalt Bochum, Departments of Pneumology and Infectious Diseases, Bochum Find articles by Santiago Ewig Klaus Richter3AQUA – Institute for Applied Quality Improvement and Research in Health Care GmbH Göttingen Find articles by Klaus Richter Thomas König3AQUA – Institute for Applied Quality Improvement and Research in Health Care GmbH Göttingen Find articles by Thomas König Günther Heller3AQUA – Institute for Applied Quality Improvement and Research in Health Care GmbH Göttingen Find articles by Günther Heller Torsten T. Bauer4Helios Klinikum Emil von Behring, Berlin Find articles by Torsten T. Bauer Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer 1Department of Medicine 1 – Gastroenterology, Pneumology and Endocrinology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen 2Centre for Thoracic Diseases in the Ruhr Area, EVK Herne and Augusta-Kranken-Anstalt Bochum, Departments of Pneumology and Infectious Diseases, Bochum 3AQUA – Institute for Applied Quality Improvement and Research in Health Care GmbH Göttingen 4Helios Klinikum Emil von Behring, Berlin *Medizinische Klinik 1, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen Ulmenweg 18, 91054 Erlangen, Germany [email protected] Received 2012 Sep 18; Accepted 2014 May 15. Copyright notice See letter "Correspondence (letter to the editor): Far Removed From Patients" in volume 112 on page 173. See letter "Correspondence (letter to the editor): Significance of the Respiratory Rate in Emergency Medicine" in volume 112 on page 173. See letter "Correspondence (reply): In Reply" in volume 112 on page 174. AbstractBackgroundMeasurement of the respiratory rate is an important instrument for assessing the severity of acute disease. The respiratory rate is often not measured in routine practice because its clinical utility is inadequately appreciated. In Germany, documentation of the respiratory rate is obligatory when a patient with pneumonia is hospitalized. This fact has enabled us to study the prognostic significance of the respiratory rate in reference to a large medical database. MethodsWe retrospectively analyzed data from the external quality-assurance program for community-acquired pneumonia for the years 2010–2012. All patients aged 18 years or older who were not mechanically ventilated on admission were included in the analysis. Logistic regression was used to determine the significance of the respiratory rate as a risk factor for in-hospital mortality. Results705 928 patients were admitted to the hospital with community-acquired pneumonia (incidence: 3.5 cases per 1000 adults per year). The in-hospital mortality of these patients was 13.1% (92 227 persons). The plot of mortality as a function of respiratory rate on admission was U-shaped and slanted to the right, with the lowest mortality at a respiratory rate of 20/min on admission. If patients with a respiratory rate of 12–20/min are used as a baseline for comparison, patients with a respiratory rate of 27–33/min had an odds ratio (OR) of 1.72 for in-hospital death, and those with a respiratory rate above 33/min had an OR of 2.55. Further independent risk factors for in-hospital death were age, admission from a nursing home, hospital, or rehabilitation facility, chronic bedridden state, disorientation, systolic blood pressure, and pulse pressure. ConclusionRespiratory rate is an independent risk marker for in-hospital mortality in community-acquired pneumonia. It should be measured when patients are admitted to the hospital with pneumonia and other acute conditions. Measuring the respiratory rate is an important and simple tool for assessing the severity of acute cardiorespiratory and metabolic diseases. The first British Thoracic Society survey (1982–1983) on prognostic factors for community-acquired pneumonia revealed a close association between respiratory rate and mortality (1). The mortality in this study rose from 0 for a respiratory rate below 20/min to 1.7%, 9% and 16% for respiratory rate values in the ranges 20 to 29, 30 to 39, and 40 to 49, respectively (1). The prognostic significance of the respiratory rate was confirmed in numerous studies about acute respiratory infections in different age groups (2– 5). Accordingly, the respiratory rate is included in standard prognostic tools, such as the CRB 65 Index (confusion, respiratory rate, blood pressure, age ≥ 65 years) or the Pneumonia Severity Index (PSI or FINE Score) (6, 7). Although the German and international guidelines recommend the use of these scores (8– 10), the respiratory rate is often not recorded in acute care situations, or the need for monitoring the respiratory rate is questioned (11– 15). The main reason for that is the lack of awareness of the prognostic significance of this vital sign (13– 15). Since the introduction of mandatory external quality assurance in 2005, the respiratory rate of patients with community-acquired pneumonia is recorded on admission and on discharge. The objective of this analysis is to study the prognostic significance of the respiratory rate based on the external quality assurance data collected from an unselected patient population with community-acquired pneumonia. MethodsData of the mandatory external quality assurance from 2010 to 2012 in the clinical area Community-acquired pneumonia were analyzed. The data set includes all adults (≥18 years) who received inpatient treatment in a German hospital with the principal diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia. Patients were identified based on the ICD code of the DRG (Diagnosebezogene Fallgruppen, German Diagnosis-Related Groups) coding with pneumonia as principal diagnosis (eBox 1). Patients with severe immunodeficiency (such as leukemia or HIV infection) and hospital-acquired pneumonias (eBox 2) were excluded. Data were collected on type of admission (from nursing facility, hospital or rehabilitation facility), bedridden state, state of consciousness, respiratory rate and blood pressure on hospital admission (eFigure 1). The method how to measure the respiratory rate or the procedure is not prescribed. The breaths should be counted over a period of at least 30 seconds, ideally of one minute. In the 2010 data year, logistic regressions were first introduced to promote fair risk comparison (for example between hospitals), taking into consideration (nearly) all patients admitted with community-acquired pneumonia. With this method, the impact of the respiratory rate can be analyzed while simultaneously taking into account/adjusting other prognostic factors. Based on this approach, the following risk-adjusted analyses were performed (16). eBox 1ICD Codes of Inclusion DiagnosesA48.1 Legionnaires disease B01.2 Varicella pneumonia J10.0 Influenza with pneumonia, other influenza virus identified J11.0 Influenza with pneumonia, virus not identified J12.0 Adenoviral pneumonia J12.1 Respiratory syncytial virus pneumonia J12.2 Parainfluenza virus pneumonia J12.3 (new) Human metapneumovirus pneumonia J12.8 Other viral pneumonia J12.9 Viral pneumonia, unspecified J13 Pneumonia due to Streptococcus pneumoniae J14 Pneumonia due to Haemophilus influenzae J15.0 Pneumonia due to Klebsiella pneumoniae J15.1 Pneumonia due to Pseudomonas J15.2 Pneumonia due to staphylococcus J15.3 Pneumonia due to streptococcus, group B J15.4 Pneumonia due to other streptococci J15.5 Pneumonia due to Escherichia coli J15.6 Pneumonia due to other aerobic Gram-negative bacteria J15.7 Pneumonia due to Mycoplasma pneumoniae J15.8 Other bacterial pneumonia J15.9 Bacterial pneumonia, unspecified J16.0 Chlamydial pneumonia J16.8 Pneumonia due to other specified infectious organisms J18.0 Bronchopneumonia, unspecified J18.1 Lobar pneumonia, unspecified J18.2 Hypostatic pneumonia, unspecified J18.8 Other pneumonia, organism unspecified J18.9 Pneumonia, unspecified J69.0 Pneumonitis due to food and vomit J85.1 Abscess of lung with pneumonia eBox 2ICD Codes of Exclusion DiagnosesB20 Human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] disease resulting in infectious and parasitic diseases B21 Human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] disease resulting in malignant neoplasms B22 Human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] disease resulting in other specified diseases B23.0 Acute HIV infection syndrome B23.8 HIV disease resulting in other specified conditions B24 Unspecified human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] disease C81.0 Nodular lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin lymphoma C81.1 Nodular sclerosis classical Hodgkin lymphoma C81.2 Mixed cellularity classical Hodgkin lymphom C81.3 Lymphocyte depleted classical Hodgkin lymphoma C81.7 Other classical Hodgkin lymphoma C81.9 Hodgkin lymphoma, unspecified C82.0 Follicular lymphoma grade I C82.1 Follicular lymphoma grade II C82.2 Follicular lymphoma grade III, unspecified C82.7 Other types of follicular lymphoma C82.9 Follicular lymphoma, unspecified C83.0 Non-follicular lymphoma: Small cell (diffuse) C83.1 Non-follicular lymphoma: Small cell, cleaved (diffuse) C83.2 Non-follicular lymphoma: Mixed small and large cell (diffuse) C83.3 Non-follicular lymphoma: Large cell (diffuse) C83.4 Non-follicular lymphoma: Immunoblastic (diffuse) C83.5 Non-follicular lymphoma: Lymphoblastic (diffuse) C83.6 Non-follicular lymphoma: Undifferentiated (diffuse) C83.7 Burkitt lymphoma C83.8 Other non-follicular lymphoma C83.9 Non-follicular (diffuse) lymphoma, unspecified C84.0 Mycosis fungoides C84.1 Sézary's disease C84.2 T-zone lymphoma C84.3 Lymphoepithelioid lymphoma Lennert's lymphoma C84.4 Peripheral T-cell lymphoma C84.5 Other mature T/NK-cell lymphomas C85.0 Lymphosarcoma C85.1 B-cell lymphoma, unspecified C85.7 Other specified types of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma C85.9 Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, unspecified type C88.00 Waldenström's macroglobulinaemia: Without information about complete remission C88.10 Alpha heavy chain disease: Without information about complete remission C88.20 Gamma heavy chain disease: Without information about complete remission C88.30 Immunoproliferative small intestinal disease: Without information about complete remission C88.70 Other malignant immunoproliferative diseases: Without information about complete remission C88.90 Malignant immunoproliferative disease, unspecified: Without information about complete remission C90.00 Plasmacytoma [Multiple myeloma]: Without information about complete remission C90.10 Plasma cell leukemia: Without information about complete remission C90.20 Plasmacytoma, extramedullary: Without information about complete remission C91.00 Acute lymphoblastic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C91.10 Chronic lymphatic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C91.20 Subacute lymphatic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C91.30 Prolymphocytic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C91.40 Hairy-cell leukemia: Without information about complete remission C91.50 Adult T-cell leukemia: Without information about complete remission C91.70 Other lymphoid leukemia: Without information about complete remission C91.90 Lymphoid leukemia, unspecified: Without information about complete remission C92.00 Acute myeloid leukemia: Without information about complete remission C92.10 Chronic myeloid leukemia: Without information about complete remission C92.20 Subacute myeloid leukemia: Without information about complete remission C92.30 Myeloid sarcoma: Without information about complete remission C92.40 Acute promyelocytic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C92.50 Acute myelomonocytic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C92.70 Other myeloid leukemia: Without information about complete remission C92.90 Myeloid leukemia, unspecified: Without information about complete remission C93.00 Acute monocytic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C93.10 Chronic monocytic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C93.20 Subacute monocytic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C93.70 Other monocytic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C93.90 Monocytic leukemia, unspecified: Without information about complete remission C94.00 Acute erythremia and erythroleukemia: Without information about complete remission C94.10 Chronic erythremia: Without information about complete remission C94.20 Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia: Without information about complete remission C94.30 Mast cell leukemia: Without information about complete remission C94.40 Acute panmyelosis: Without information about complete remission C94.50 Acute myelofibrosis: Without information about complete remission C94.70 Other specified leukemias: Without information about complete remission C95.00 Acute leukemia of unspecified cell type: Without information about complete remission C95.10 Chronic leukemia of unspecified cell type: Without information about complete remission C95.20 Subacute leukemia of unspecified cell type: Without information about complete remission C95.70 Other leukemia of unspecified cell type: Without information about complete remission C95.90 Leukemia, unspecified: Without information about complete remission C96.0 Letterer-Siwe disease C96.1 Malignant histiocytosis C96.2 Malignant mast cell tumor C96.3 True histiocytic lymphoma C96.7 Other specified malignant neoplasms of lymphoid, hematopoietic and related tissue C96.9 Malignant neoplasm of lymphoid, hematopoietic and related tissue, unspecified D70.0 Congenital agranulocytosis and neutropenia D70.10 Drug-induced agranulocytosis and neutropenia: Critical period less than 4 days D70.11 Drug-induced agranulocytosis and neutropenia: Critical period from 10 to less than 20 days D70.12 Drug-induced agranulocytosis and neutropenia: Critical period 20 days and more D70.13 (New) drug-induced agranulocytosis and neutropenia: Critical period from 4 to less than 7 days D70.14 (New) drug-induced agranulocytosis and neutropenia: Critical period from 7 to less than 10 days D70.18 Other types of drug-induced agranulocytosis and neutropenia D70.19 Drug-induced agranulocytosis and neutropenia, unspecified: D70.3 Other agranulocytosis D70.5 Cyclic neutropenia D70.6 Other neutropenia D70.7 Neutropenia, unspecified D71 Functional disorders of polymorphonuclear neutrophils D72.0 Genetic anomalies of leukocytes D76.00 Multifocal Langerhans cell histiocytosis D76.01 Unifocal Langerhans cell histiocytosis D76.08 Other and unspecified Langerhans cell histiocytosis, not elsewhere classified D76.1 Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis D76.2 Hemophagocytic syndrome, infection-associated D76.3 Other histiocytosis syndromes D80.0 Hereditary hypogammaglobulinemia D80.1 Nonfamilial hypogammaglobulinemia D81.0 Severe combined immunodeficiency [SCID] with reticular dysgenesis D81.1 Severe combined immunodeficiency [SCID] with low T- and B-cell numbers D81.2 Severe combined immunodeficiency [SCID] with low or normal B-cell numbers D81.3 Adenosine deaminase [ADA] deficiency D81.4 Nezelof syndrome D81.5 Purine nucleoside phosphorylase [PNP] deficiency D81.6 Major histocompatibility complex class I deficiency D81.7 Major histocompatibility complex class II deficiency D81.8 Other combined immunodeficiencies D81.9 Combined immunodeficiency, unspecified D82.0 Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome D82.1 Di-George syndrome D82.2 Immunodeficiency with short-limbed stature D82.3 Immunodeficiency following hereditary defective response to Epstein-Barr virus D82.8 Immunodeficiency associated with other specified major defects D82.9 Immunodeficiency associated with major defect, unspecified D83.0 Common variable immunodeficiency with predominant abnormalities of B-cell numbers and function D83.1 Common variable immunodeficiency with predominant immunoregulatory T-cell disorders D83.2 Common variable immunodeficiency with autoantibodies to B- or T-cells D83.8 Other common variable immunodeficiencies D83.9 Common variable immunodeficiency, unspecified D84.0 Lymphocyte function antigen-1 [LFA-1] defect D84.1 Defects in the complement system D90 Immunocompromisation after radiation, chemotherapy and other immunosuppressive measures T86.00 Failure of transplanted hematopoietic stem cells T86.01 Acute Graft-versus-host disease, grade I and II T86.02 Acute Graft-versus-host disease, grade III and IV T86.03 Chronic Graft-versus-host disease, limited form T86.04 Chronic Graft-versus-host disease, distinct form T86.09 Graft-versus-host disease, unspecified T86.10 Acute deterioration in kidney transplant function T86.11 Chronic deterioration in kidney transplant function T86.12 Delayed start of transplant function T86.19 Other and unspecified functional impairment, failure and rejection of a kidney transplant T86.2 Failure and rejection of heart transplant T86.3 Failure and rejection of heart and lung transplant T86.40 Acute deterioration in liver transplant function T86.41 Chronic deterioration in liver transplant function T86.49 Other and unspecified functional impairment, failure and rejection of a liver transplant T86.81 Failure and rejection: Lung transplant T86.82 Failure and rejection: Pancreas transplant U69.00 Elsewhere classified, hospital-acquired pneumonia in patients aged 18 years and older Z94.0 Kidney transplant status Z94.1 Heart transplant status Z94.2 Lung transplant status Z94.3 Heart and lung transplant status Z94.4 Liver transplant status Z94.80 Hematopoietic stem cell transplant status, without presence of immunosuppression Z94.81 Hematopoietic stem cell transplant status, with presence of immunosuppression Z94.88 Other transplanted organ and tissue status To evaluate the respiratory rate on admission as a risk factor for hospital mortality, a logistic regression was performed including all patients (≥18 years) who did not receive mechanical ventilation at the time of admission. Adjustments were performed on the following parameters: age, sex, admission from nursing facility, hospital or rehabilitation facility, bedridden state, state of consciousness, and blood pressure on hospital admission. Calculation of the hospital standardized mortality ratio (HSMR) in relation to respiratory rate was based on these risk factors used in the model. These were included in the standardization with the respective regression coefficient. Patients without records of the respiratory rate and/or the blood pressure on admission, patients with implausible blood pressure values (<20 mmHg) and respiratory rates (<6/min or >49/min) were excluded. Statistical analysis was performed using IBM SPSS 20.0.0. ResultsBetween 2010 and 2012, altogether 705 928 adult patients were treated on an in-patient basis for community acquired pneumonia. With 67.1 million adults (≥18 years) living in Germany, this represents an average annual incidence of hospital admissions for pneumonia of 3.5 per 1000 inhabitants above 18 years. Of these patients, 13.1% (92 277) died during their hospital stays. 692 950 patients were not ventilated on admission. For 643 356 of the remaining patients, admission respiratory rate data were available; of these, 641 661 patients had plausible values, i.e. an admission respiratory rate between 6/min and 49/min and a systolic blood pressure of more than 20 mmHg. Of these evaluable 641 661 patients, 80 293 died (12.5%). About half of these patients had respiratory rates between 12 and 20/min (normal range). Less than 1% had values below 12/min (Table 1). The hospital standardized mortality ratio (HSMR) of the patients in relation to the respiratory rate shows a right-skewed U-shaped distribution, with the lowest probability of dying at about 20/min (Figure 1). In a binomial logistic regression analysis of the 2010–2012 data, the admission respiratory rate was one of several independent risk factors for hospital mortality. The risk of dying significantly increases on both admission respiratory rates above 20/min and below 12/min (Figure 2). The odds ratio for patients with respiratory rates: Table 1Frequency distribution of the respiratory rate on admission in the patient population studied Respiratory rate on admission (in 1/min)FrequencyPercentagebelow 1240590.612–20308 96448.221–2384 24813.124–26118 21218.427–3397 47215.2above 3328 7064.5total641 661100.0 Open in a separate window  Open in a separate window Figure The lowest mortality rate is found at a respiratory rate of 20/min. The hospital mortality increases above and below the normal range of respiratory rate (12–20/min). Therefore, this relationship is better represented by LOWESS regression than linear regression.
Other independent risk factors are age, admission from nursing facility, hospital or rehabilitation facility, chronic bedridden state, disorientation, systolic blood pressure and pulse amplitude (Table 2). Table 2Independent risk factors for hospital mortality* Risk variableWaldOdds Ratio95% confidence intervallower limitupper limitAge62 to 72 years20272.342.262.4373 to 79 years35642.972.863.0880 to 85 years53843.713.583.84above 85 years73034.584.424.74Respiratory rate on admissionbelow 12/min561.441.311.5921–23/min1901.201.171.2324–26/min6551.331.301.3627–33/min23941.721.691.76above 33/min34232.552.472.63Systolic blood pressure on admissionup to 110 mmHg59792.212.162.25111–120 mmHg3561.281.251.31121–134 mmHg671.111.081.14Pulse amplitude up to 40 mmHg1111.111.091.14Male sex4521.201.181.22Admission from inpatient nursing facility1891.151.131.17Admission from other hospital or inpatient rehabilitation facility1181.251.201.30Chronic bedridden status64572.282.232.32Disorientation unrelated to pneumonia22491.691.651.73Disorientation related to pneumonia69392.912.842.99 Open in a separate window *according to logistic regression, in hospital-treated patients with pneumonia (2010–2012: N = 641 661, of that 80 293 hospital deaths). Reference categories: respiratory rate 12–20/min, age < 62 years, systolic blood pressure on admission > 134 mmHg. Area under the ROC curve: 0.78 Nagelkerke's pseudo-R 2: 0.20 DiscussionRespiratory rate and prognosis in pneumoniaWith over 230 000 hospital admissions per year, community-acquired pneumonia is one of the most common acute conditions in German hospitals. More than 10% of these patients die during their hospital stay (www.sqg.de/ergebnisse/leistungsbereiche/ambulant-erworbene-pneumonie.html). Due to the large numbers and the high mortality among these patients, an early and rather simple prognostic assessment is required. Measuring the respiratory rate on admission is well suited for early risk stratification: Both decreased and increased respiratory rates on admission are associated with significantly increased hospital mortality rates. A comparatively mild tachypnea of 21–23/min already yields an odds ratio of 1.20 (95% CI: 1.17–1.23). The risk of dying rises further with increasing respiratory rate: with respiratory rates above 33/min the odds ratio is 2.55 (Table 2). This relationship between mortality and respiratory rate on admission was first reported in a survey of the British Thoracic Society with 453 pneumonia patients which was published in 1987 (1). It can also be demonstrated in Germany (Figure). The respiratory rate is an integral part of established prognostic tools such as the CRB-65 index or the PSI (6, 7). Measuring the respiratory rate for calculating the CRB-65 index is also recommended in the S3 guideline for outpatient patients with pneumonia to help with the decision whether a patient should be admitted to hospital (recommendation level B) (8). In the external quality assurance for Community-acquired pneumonia, the documentation of the respiratory rate is required for the calculation of the CRB-65 index, among others, and thus for risk adjustment. Without reliable documentation of the respiratory rate, risk adjustment via the CRB-65 index cannot be performed. Moreover, with missing or incorrect documentation the respiratory rate is lost as a parameter for developing future risk adjustment tools. Respiratory rate as marker of acute diseaseIn acute bronchial asthma, pulmonary embolism or heart failure, the respiratory rate is an important prognostic parameter as well (17– 19). Because hypercapnia, hypoxia and metabolic acidosis, amongst others, lead to an increase in respiratory rate, it is logical that the respiratory rate can be used to detect and monitor these conditions, regardless of the underlying disease. Therefore, measuring the respiratory rate may support the early identification of high-risk patients. This was demonstrated for patients in emergency departments, in general wards or after surgery (20– 24). For example, the respiratory rate was the parameter best suited to identify high-risk patients among 1695 emergency department patients (25). Likewise, in the prediction of cardiac arrest on a general ward, the respiratory rate was superior to other physiological parameters, such as hypoxia and systolic blood pressure (26, 27). Interestingly, a recently published analysis of more than a million sets of vital data of patients in a US hospital found an association between the deviation of the respiratory rate from normal and hospital mortality of a size similar to that demonstrated for the external quality assurance pneumonia data (Figure) (28). In early warning systems, which trigger the deployment of hospital emergency teams, measuring the respiratory rate is regularly included and again one of the best predictive parameters (11, 20, 23, 25). If the respiratory rate is not measured, these tools cannot be used or the alarm threshold is not reached. Thus, abnormal respiratory rates should be further investigated while these patients require close monitoring (e.g. on display devices). Measuring of respiratory rateThe most commonly used method to determine the respiratory rate is discontinuous manual measurement by counting the respiratory chest movements (via inspection or auscultation). In adult patients, the respiratory rate can also be measured manually with sufficient reliability (good intra- and inter-observer reliability) (29, 30). Taking into consideration the variability of breathing, a period of at least 30 seconds should be allowed for measuring. Even more accurate results can be obtained by counting the respiratory rate over a period of 60 seconds or in two blocks of 30 second intervals (31). Capnography, the measurement of CO2 concentrations in the expired air, is considered the gold standard of continuous monitoring. Alternative technologies include impedance pneumography (recording of chest impedance changes during in- and expiration by means of chest wall electrodes) or the detection of breathing-induced amplitude modulation of R-waves in electocardiography (ECG), among others. Impedance pneumography is commonly used along with continuous ECG monitoring; measurements are reliable as long as interfering factors, such as wrong electrode placement, coughing or excessive patient movements, are excluded (32). LimitationsOne important limitation of the study is the diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia using the coded principal diagnosis and the exclusion of hospital-acquired pneumonias and pneumonias associated with severe immunodeficiency using coded secondary diagnoses. Pneumonia patients coded with another principal diagnosis (e.g. sepsis) may have been missed, while patients with hospital-acquired pneumonias or severe immunodeficiency may have been included if the secondary diagnosis was not coded. The impact of comorbidities could not be included in the analysis of independent risk factors for hospital mortality as these were not systematically recorded with this method. This is one of the reasons why the adjustment only has a moderate Nagelkerke's pseudo-R2. The validity of the analyzed data depends on the validity of the measuring method and the quality of documentation. While for parameters such as age or survival a high level of validity can be expected, a higher error rate has to be assumed for the measurement and documentation of the respiratory rate, for example. With more than 200 000 data sets per year from over 1200 hospitals, reviewing individual cases is not possible. Thus, implausible values or values under 6/min or above 49/min which, based on clinical experience, are rather difficult to measure accurately were excluded from this study. In the actual quality assurance program, statistical abnormality identification with feedback to the affected hospitals (“structured dialogue”) and random sampling with second acquisition of selected data fields were used for data validation. Moreover, with quality assurance in the clinical area Pneumonia in place since 2005, the participants were familiar with it. A particular strength of this study is that virtually all hospitalized patients in Germany with community-acquired pneumonia were included. Potential for improvement and conclusionMeasuring the respiratory rate is a simple and reliable tool to assess the prognosis in patients with pneumonia and other acute diseases. Studies and also the discussion related to the external quality assurance in the clinical area Pneumonia show that measuring and documenting the respiratory rate is still not generally accepted (11– 15). To improve the measurement and documentation of vital signs in general and of the respiratory rate in particular, more awareness of their proven importance for patient care should be raised among nurses and doctors during their education and training. Training to this effect has been proven to result in significant improvements. For example, training and audits as part of the implementation of an “early-warning system” on general wards increased the level of respiratory rate documentation from 30% to 91%, while in an emergency department environment, vital signs documentation climbed from 78% to 88% (33, 34). Key Messages
AcknowledgmentsTranslated from the original German by Ralf Thoene, MD. FootnotesConflict of interest statement All authors are members of the Federal Experts' Working Group on Pneumonia of the AQUA Institute. PD Strauß has received fees for consultancy from Swedish Orphan Biovitrum, Biotest and Pfizer. He has received reimbursements for congress participation fees from Bayer Vital, Pfizer and Infetcopharm. He has received reimbursement for travel and accommodation expenses and fees for the preparation of scientific meetings from Bayer Vital, Pfizer, Infectopharm, and MSD. How does pneumonia affect the heart?“An acute infection like pneumonia increases the stress on the heart and can lead to a cardiac event like heart failure, heart attack or arrhythmias,” said Weston Harkness, DO, a cardiology fellow at Samaritan Cardiology - Corvallis. For a healthy person, a case of pneumonia is very unlikely to lead to a cardiac event.
What is your heart rate with pneumonia?The rule identified five key predictors for pneumonia: temperature greater than 100° F, heart rate greater than 100 beats per minute, crackles, decreased breath sounds, and absence of asthma.
Why do patients with pneumonia have increased respiratory rate?If the infection and fluid buildup get severe enough, it can stop the lungs from doing their job. When the lungs are unable to add oxygen to the blood and remove carbon dioxide at the correct levels, respiratory failure can occur. Signs of respiratory failure include: fast breathing.
How does pneumonia affect your vitals?In bacterial pneumonia, your temperature may rise as high as 105 degrees F. This pneumonia causes profuse sweating, and rapidly increased breathing and pulse rate. Lips and nailbeds may have a bluish color due to lack of oxygen in the blood. A patient's mental state may be confused or delirious.
|
Why does heart rate increase with pneumonia
Related Posts
Copyright © 2024 en.apacode Inc.
